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Chapter 7 Thinking
Introduction
Thinking is a core cognitive activity, unique to humans, involving the manipulation and analysis of information. It goes beyond simple sensory input to interpret meaning and relate information to existing knowledge, creating new understanding. Thinking is essential for various cognitive processes, including problem-solving, reasoning, judging, decision-making, and creativity.
This chapter explores the nature of thinking, its components (mental images and concepts), different thinking processes, the nature and development of creative thinking, and the intricate relationship between language and thought.
We will also discuss how language develops and is used, and its connection to our thinking processes. This includes understanding different viewpoints on whether language determines thought, thought determines language, or if they have separate origins.
Nature Of Thinking
Thinking is considered the foundation of all cognitive activities. It is a higher mental process that involves manipulating and analysing information acquired from the environment or already stored in our memory. This manipulation occurs through processes like abstracting, reasoning, imagining, problem-solving, judging, and decision-making.
Thinking is typically organised and goal-directed. Most daily activities, from simple tasks to complex challenges, have a specific goal that one aims to achieve through planning, recalling previous steps, or inferring new strategies.
Thinking is an internal mental process. It cannot be directly observed but must be inferred from overt behaviour. For example, a chess player's deep thinking before a move is internal, but their subsequent move allows us to infer the strategies or evaluations they were considering.
Building Blocks Of Thought
Thinking relies on existing knowledge, which is represented mentally in the form of either mental images or words (concepts).
- Mental Image: A mental representation of a sensory experience (visual, auditory, etc.). We often use visual images to think about things, places, or events (e.g., imagining a cat on a tree, visualising a map). Images help us represent and manipulate information mentally.
- Concepts: Mental representations of categories. When we encounter objects or events, we extract their characteristics and match them with existing categories (e.g., classifying an apple as 'fruit', a table as 'furniture'). Concepts refer to classes of objects, ideas, or events that share common properties.
Forming concepts is essential for organising knowledge, making our thought processes quicker and more efficient. Categorising objects and events allows for faster retrieval and processing of information, similar to how physical items or library books are organised for easy access.
(An image showing a girl with thought bubbles containing visual representations, illustrating the concept of forming mental images.)
(A sample map with various places labelled, likely used in an activity to demonstrate the formation of mental images.)
(A blank map presented in an unusual orientation, used after viewing the first map to test recall based on the formation of mental images.)
Culture And Thinking
Cultural background significantly influences thinking styles. Research comparing American and Asian students' descriptions of pictures suggests differences: Americans focus on prominent individual objects ("analytical thinking"), while Asians focus on relationships between objects and backgrounds ("holistic thinking"). This indicates that cultural factors shape how we perceive and organise information mentally.
(An image potentially depicting a scene used in a cross-cultural study, like an underwater scene, to illustrate differences in what people from different cultures focus on or how they describe the scene.)
The Processes Of Thinking
Thinking encompasses various complex processes directed towards specific goals.
Problem Solving
Problem solving is thinking that is goal-directed. It involves navigating from an initial state (the problem) to an end state (the solution or goal) through a series of mental operations or steps. Problems can range from simple daily tasks to complex challenges (e.g., repairing a cycle, planning a trip, solving a math problem). The process typically involves identifying and representing the problem, planning a solution (setting sub-goals), evaluating potential solutions, executing the selected solution, and evaluating the outcome, potentially rethinking and redefining the problem and solution.
Obstacles to Solving Problems: Two major hindrances are:
- Mental Set: A tendency to approach new problems using strategies or mental operations that worked in the past, even if they are not optimal or appropriate for the current problem. Prior success can lead to rigidity, preventing the discovery of new rules or strategies. Functional fixedness is a type of mental set where one fails to see that an object can be used in a way other than its usual function (e.g., not thinking of a book as a hammer).
- Lack of Motivation: Insufficient drive or persistence can cause individuals to give up easily when facing problems or initial failures, despite possessing problem-solving skills.
(A cartoon showing a mouse saying "All cats have four legs, I have four legs, therefore I am a cat," illustrating incorrect deductive reasoning where the initial premise or inference drawn from it is flawed.)
| Mental Operation | Nature of Problem (Example: Organising a School Play) |
|---|---|
| 1. Identify the problem | A week left for Teacher's Day, need to organise a play. |
| 2. Represent the problem | Organising involves choosing theme, casting, arranging funds, etc. |
| 3. Plan the solution: Set sub-goals | Research themes, find actors, estimate costs, seek expert advice. |
| 4. Evaluate all solutions (plays) | Consider themes based on cost, duration, suitability; hold auditions/rehearsals. |
| 5. Select one solution and execute it | Choose the best play option and stage it. |
| 6. Evaluate the outcome | Assess audience/teacher feedback; reflect on successful steps. |
| 7. Rethink and redefine problems and solutions | Think about how to improve future plays. |
Reasoning
Reasoning is the process of gathering and analysing information to arrive at conclusions or make inferences. It is a form of problem solving where the goal is to determine what conclusion can be drawn from given information. There are different types of reasoning:
- Deductive Reasoning: Starts with a general assumption or belief and draws a specific conclusion based on that assumption (general to particular). If the initial assumption is incorrect, the conclusion will be invalid. (e.g., Assuming people only run on platforms to catch trains, concluding a runner is late based on this assumption).
- Inductive Reasoning: Starts with specific facts and observations and draws a general conclusion based on them (particular to general). (e.g., Observing someone entering a train, returning with a bag, concluding they left their bag). Scientific reasoning is often inductive, general rules are inferred from multiple observations.
Analogy: A form of reasoning involving a comparison where the relationship between two things is the same as the relationship between two others (A is to B as C is to D). Analogies can aid problem-solving by highlighting salient attributes that might otherwise be missed.
Decision-Making
Decision-making is the process of choosing among several available alternatives by evaluating the potential costs and benefits of each option. Judgment is an interrelated process where conclusions are drawn, opinions are formed, and events are evaluated based on knowledge and evidence.
Some judgments are automatic (habitual), others require conscious effort. Judgments are influenced by personal beliefs and attitudes and can change with new information. Decision-making is choosing among options, often involving evaluating criteria like interest, future prospects, costs, and benefits associated with each choice (e.g., choosing a subject in school, deciding between playing sports and studying). Decision-making differs from other problem-solving in that the potential solutions (choices) are usually already known, and the task is to select the best one based on evaluation.
Nature And Process Of Creative Thinking
Creative thinking involves producing novel and original ideas or solutions. It's not limited to outstanding achievements by famous figures; everyone has the potential for creativity in various aspects of daily life ('Everyday Creativity' vs. 'Special Talent Creativity').
Nature Of Creative Thinking
Creative thinking is characterised by:
- Novelty and Originality: Producing ideas or solutions that are new and unique and did not exist before.
- Effective Surprise: The product or idea is unusual and evokes surprise.
- Appropriateness: Creative thinking is reality-oriented, constructive, appropriate to the context, and socially desirable (not just bizarre or non-conformist).
J.P. Guilford distinguished two types of thinking relevant to creativity:
- Convergent Thinking: Required for problems with a single correct answer. Thinking converges on the correct solution. (e.g., solving a number series problem).
- Divergent Thinking: Open-ended thinking for problems with multiple possible answers. It involves exploring various directions and ideas. (e.g., listing uses of an object). Divergent thinking abilities:
- Fluency: Ability to produce many ideas.
- Flexibility: Ability to produce a variety of different types of ideas.
- Originality: Ability to produce rare or unusual ideas.
- Elaboration: Ability to develop and work out details of new ideas.
Both convergent and divergent thinking are important for creativity: divergent thinking generates ideas, and convergent thinking selects the best one.
(An illustration potentially showing a central idea branching out into multiple different ideas, representing the nature of divergent thinking.)
Lateral Thinking (Box 7.2)
Edward de Bono uses the term 'lateral thinking', similar to Guilford's divergent thinking, contrasting it with 'vertical thinking' (logical, linear processing within existing frameworks). Lateral thinking involves looking for alternative ways to define and interpret problems, making mental leaps to new perspectives. It's about "digging a hole in another place" rather than deeper in the same spot.
De Bono developed techniques like the 'Six Thinking Hats' to stimulate different thinking modes: White (facts), Red (feelings), Black (caution/logic), Yellow (positives), Green (creativity/alternatives), Blue (process control). Wearing different 'hats' helps view issues from varied perspectives.
Process Of Creative Thinking
Creative thinking is more than sudden insight; it's a process with stages:
- Preparation: Understanding and analysing the task/problem, gathering background information. Involves curiosity and exploring different viewpoints (divergent thinking).
- Incubation: A period where conscious effort on the problem may pause. Creative ideas may emerge during this time while the mind is relaxed or engaged in other activities.
- Illumination: The "Aha!" moment when a creative idea suddenly emerges into consciousness, often accompanied by excitement.
- Verification: Testing and evaluating the idea's worth or appropriateness (convergent thinking).
(A diagram depicting the stages of the creative process: Preparation, Incubation, Illumination, and Verification.)
Strategies For Creative Thinking
Creative thinking can be enhanced through specific strategies:
- Increase awareness and sensitivity to notice details, problems, gaps, contradictions. Cultivate reading, varied exposure, asking questions, pondering.
- Generate many ideas (fluency) and varied ideas (flexibility) for a task. Explore multiple angles.
- Use Osborn's Brainstorming technique: Separate idea generation from evaluation. Prioritise imagination, defer judgment to increase fluency and alternatives. Can be done individually or in groups.
- Use checklists and questions ("What else?", "How else?") to prompt new ideas.
Thought And Language
A fundamental question is the relationship between thought and language. Is language essential for thinking, or does thinking exist independently?
There are three main viewpoints on their relationship:
- Language as Determinant of Thought (Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis): Benjamin Lee Whorf proposed that the language one uses determines what and how one thinks. Differences in vocabulary and linguistic categories across languages influence how people perceive and conceptualise the world (e.g., differences in kinship terms or colour words across languages). The strong version (linguistic determinism) argues language *determines* thought; weaker versions suggest it influences or shapes thinking.
- Thought as Determinant of Language: Jean Piaget believed thought precedes and determines language. Children first form internal representations of the world through non-linguistic thinking (e.g., imitation). Language is seen as one vehicle for expressing thought, but not necessary for its origin. Understanding language requires underlying conceptual knowledge (thinking).
- Different Origins of Language and Thought: Lev Vygotsky argued that thought and language develop separately in children until around age two, when they merge. Early thought is preverbal and action-based; early language is reflexive. After merging, thought becomes verbal and rational, using inner speech. Language and thinking become interdependent, with the development of conceptual thinking depending on inner speech quality, and vice versa.
Development Of Language And Language Use
Language is a system of symbols organised by rules, used for communication. It has three basic characteristics:
- Symbols: Words representing objects, ideas, events, etc. (e.g., 'home', 'school'). Meaning is attained through association with what they represent.
- Rules (Syntax): A set of grammatical rules governing how symbols (words) are combined into meaningful sentences.
- Communication: Language is used to convey thoughts, feelings, intentions to others. Communication can be verbal (spoken language) or non-verbal (gestures, sign language).
- Newborns: Produce undifferentiated crying sounds for discomfort, gradually differentiated (hunger, pain). Cooing sounds express happiness.
- Around 6 months: Babbling stage, repetitive consonant-vowel sounds (da-da-da). By 9 months, sounds resemble adult voices (echolalia).
- Around 1st birthday: One-word stage. First words are single syllables ('ma', 'da'). Words function as holophrases (single word representing a whole sentence/phrase).
- 18-20 months: Two-word stage. Combine two words, often nouns and verbs (telegraphic speech), conveying essential meaning like telegrams.
- Beyond 2.5 years: Language development focuses on acquiring grammatical rules.
How language is acquired is debated:
- Behaviourist (Skinner): Language learning follows principles of association, imitation, and reinforcement (Chapter 5). Children are reinforced for producing appropriate sounds/words; shaping builds complex language.
- Nativist (Chomsky): Argues language acquisition is innate, not solely explained by learning principles. Children acquire vast vocabulary and grammar rapidly, creating sentences never heard before. Believes children are born with a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) and "universal grammar," a built-in readiness to learn the grammar of any language during a critical period. Language development is seen akin to biological maturation.
Both perspectives contribute: learning explains vocabulary and regional variations; innate readiness explains rapid grammar acquisition and universal stages.
Bilingualism And Multilingualism (Box 7.3)
Bilingualism is proficiency in two languages; Multilingualism is proficiency in more than two. Mother tongue is typically the first language learned or the one with which one identifies emotionally. Individuals can have multiple mother tongues.
India has widespread multilingualism at individual and societal levels. Most Indians use multiple languages in daily life. Studies show that bilingualism/multilingualism benefits children's cognitive, linguistic, and academic skills.
Language Use
Effective language use involves knowing socially appropriate ways to communicate. Beyond grammar and vocabulary, it requires pragmatics – understanding social contexts and using language to achieve specific goals (requesting, thanking, demanding) appropriately. Children often struggle with politeness and turn-taking in conversations, which are learned through social interaction.
Key Terms
Bilingualism, Brainstorming, Concepts, Convergent thinking, Creativity, Decision-making, Deductive reasoning, Divergent thinking, Functional fixedness, Illumination, Images, Incubation, Inductive reasoning, Judgment, Language, Mental representation, Mental set, Multilingualism, Problem solving, Reasoning, Remote association, Syntax, Thinking
Summary
Thinking is a complex mental process manipulating information, inferred from behaviour. It uses mental images and concepts as representations.
Key thought processes: Problem solving (goal-directed), Reasoning (inference, deductive/inductive), Judgment (conclusions/evaluations), Decision-making (choosing among alternatives). Judgment and decision-making are related.
Problem-solving hindrances: mental set, functional fixedness, lack of motivation/persistence.
Creative thinking: production of novel/original ideas, reality-oriented, appropriate, constructive, socially desirable. Involves convergent (single solution) and divergent (multiple solutions) thinking. Divergent abilities: fluency, flexibility, originality, elaboration. Lateral thinking is similar to divergent.
Creative process stages: Preparation, Incubation, Illumination ('Aha!'), Verification.
Creative thinking can be enhanced via awareness, generating varied ideas, brainstorming, using checklists/questions.
Language: uniquely human system of symbols (words) organised by rules (syntax) for communication (verbal/non-verbal).
Language development: stages from crying/babbling to one-word (holophrases), two-word (telegraphic speech), and grammatical rules. Acquisition theories: Behaviourist (learning via association, imitation, reinforcement), Nativist (innate LAD, universal grammar, critical period).
Thought and language relationship: Language determines thought (linguistic relativity), thought determines language (Piaget), or they have different origins merging later (Vygotsky).
Language use: involves pragmatics (socially appropriate communication) beyond vocabulary/syntax.